Physiological Research back issues from January 2007:
Glucose-Fatty Acid Interaction in Skeletal Muscle and Adipose Tissue in Insulin Resistance
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Insulin resistance (IR) is the result of long-lasting positive energy balance and the imbalance between the uptake of energy rich substrates (glucose, lipids) and energy output. The defects in the metabolism of glucose in IR and type 2 diabetes are closely associated with the ...
SEA0400, a Novel Na+/Ca^sup 2+^ Exchanger Inhibitor, Reduces Calcium Overload Induced by Ischemia and Reperfusion in Mouse Ventricular Myocytes
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Given the potential clinical benefit of inhibiting Na+/Ca^sup 2+^ exchanger (NCX) activity during myocardial ischemia reperfusion (I/R), pharmacological approaches have been pursued to both inhibit and clarify the importance of this exchanger. SEA0400 was reported to have a ...
Renal Nerves Participation in the Effects of Nitric Oxide and ET^sub A^/ET^sub B^ Receptor Inhibition in Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary The influence of renal nerves on the effects of concurrent NO synthase inhibition (10 mg kg^sup -1^ b.w. i.v. L-NAME) and ET^sub A^/ET^sub B^ receptor inhibition (10 mg kg^sup -1^ b.w. i.v. bosentan) on renal excretory function and blood pressure in conscious spontaneously ...
Erythrocyte Omega-3, Omega-6 and Trans Fatty Acids in Relation to Risk of Preeclampsia among Women Delivering at Harare Maternity Hospital, Zimbabwe
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary We sought to examine the association between maternal erythrocyte omega-3, omega-6 and trans fatty acids and risk of preeclampsia. We conducted a case-control study of 170 women with proteinuric, pregnancy-induced hypertension and 185 normotensive pregnant women who delivered at ...
The Association between Oxidative Stress and Obstructive Lung Impairment in Patients with COPD
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary An oxidant/antioxidant imbalance is thought to play an important role in the pathogenesis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). We hypothesized that antioxidant capacity reflected by erythrocyte glutathione peroxidase (GPx), Superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase ...
Relationship between Oxygenation in Inactive Biceps Brachii Muscle and Hyperventilation during Leg Cycling
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Inactive forearm muscle oxygenation has been reported to begin decreasing from the respiratory compensation point (RCP) during ramp leg cycling. From the RCP, hyperventilation occurs with a decrease in arterial CO2 pressure (PaCO^sub 2^). The aim of this study was to determine ...
The Role of ACTH in the Pathogenesis of Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome in Rats: Hormonal Profiles and Ovarian Morphology
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Numerous hypotheses have been proposed about the pathogenesis of the polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS). However, hormonal control of persistent follicles has not been established. The objective of the present study was to compare the follicular structure and hormonal profiles of ...
Seasonal Variations of Gonadotropins and Prolactin in the Laboratory Rat. Role of Maternal Pineal Gland
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary The laboratory rat, a non-photoperiodic rodent, exhibits seasonal fluctuations of melatonin. Melatonin has been found to be readily transferred from the maternal to the fetal circulation. No data exist on the possible influence of maternal pineal gland upon seasonal variations of ...
Dynamic Changes of Orexin A and Leptin in Obese Children during Body Weight Reduction
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary In this study, we describe changes of plasma levels of the hypothalamic neuropeptide orexin A in obese children during the reduction of body weight and its relationship to other biochemical and anthropometrical parameters. We measured orexin A fasting plasma levels by the RIA ...
Effects of Selected Plant Essential Oils on the Growth and Development of Mouse Preimplantation Embryos In Vivo
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Plant essential oils (EOs) have been reported to have health benefit properties and their preventive and therapeutic use in animals is expected to increase in the future. We evaluated the influence of five essential oils obtained from plant species which are known to have ...
Differences in Activities of Antioxidant Superoxide Dismutase, Glutathione Peroxidase and Prooxidant Xanthine Oxidoreductase/Xanthine Oxidase in the Normal Corneal Epithelium of Various Mammals
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Under normal conditions, antioxidants at the corneal surface are balanced with the production of reactive oxygen species without any toxic effects. Danger from oxidative stress appears when natural antioxidants are overwhelmed leading to antioxidant/prooxidant imbalance. The aim ...
Diagnostic Significance of Urinary Thiodiglycolic Acid as a Possible Tool for Studying the Role of Vitamins B12 and Folates in the Metabolism of Thiolic Substances
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary We have found that the determination of thiodiglycolic acid (TDGA) in urine may help to characterize metabolic imbalance of substances participating in methionine synthesis, which leads to hyperhomocystinuria. From the metabolic scheme, based on a proper combination of known ...
Light Deprivation-Related Changes of Strategy Selection in the Radial Arm Maze
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary During the early postnatal age environmental signals underlie the development of sensory systems. The visual system is considered as an appropriate system to evaluate role of sensory experience in postnatal development of sensory systems. This study was made to assess the effect ...
Miotic Action of Tramadol is Determined by CYP2D6 Genotype
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Polymorphic CYP2D6 is the enzyme that activates the opioid analgesic tramadol by O-demethylation to its active metabolite O-demethyltramadol (M1). Our objective was to determine the opioid effects measured by pupillary response to tramadol of CYP2D6 genotyped volunteers in ...
Inhibitory Effect of t-Butyl Hydroperoxide on Mitochondrial Oxidative Phosphorylation in Isolated Rat Hepatocytes
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Using high-resolution oxygraphy, we tested the changes of various parameters characterizing the mitochondrial energy provision system that were induced by peroxidative damage. In the presence of succinate as respiratory substrate, 3 mM t-butyl hydroperoxide increased respiration ...
Proceeding of Czech and Slovak Physiological Societes (suppl.)
Jan 01, 2007; ... Prague February 7-9, 2006 EFFECT OF APNOE ON ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS IN THE DEPENDENCE ON THE LIGHT-DARK CYCLE IN WISTAR RATS. I.Bacová, Z.Richtáriková, I.Bracoková, S.Gresová. Department of Physiology, Medical Faculty, Safarik University, Kosice, Slovak ...
White Adipose Tissue: Storage and Effector Site for Environmental Pollutants
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary White adipose tissue (WAT) represents a reservoir of lipophilic environmental pollutants, especially of those which are resistant to biological and chemical degradation - so-called persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Large amounts of different congeners and isomers of these ...
Role of Brain Angiotensin AT^sub 1^ Receptor in the Carbachol-Induced Natriuresis and Expression of nNOS in the Locus Coeruleus and Proximal Convoluted Tubule
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Central administration of losartan effectively blocked the increase of blood pressure and drinking response induced by angiotensin II (Ang II) or carbachol. However, the relationship between angiotensin AT^sub 1^ receptors and the natriuresis induced by brain cholinergic stimuli ...
A Preliminary Study on T-786C Endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase Gene and Renal Hemodynamic and Blood Pressure Responses to Dietary Sodium
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary The purpose of the present study was to examine the role of the T-786C endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) gene polymorphism on changes in renal hemodynamics and blood pressure due to Na+ loading. Twenty-eight older (63±1 years), moderately obese (39±2 % fat) hypertensives ...
ECG Body Surface Mapping (BSM) in Type 1 Diabetic Patients
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Diabetes mellitus is a risk factor of cardiovascular diseases. ECG of patients with diabetes mellitus type 1 (DM 1) shows tachycardia (block of parasympathetic innervation) and abnormal repolarization (increased QT interval and QT dispersion (QTd)) indicating a risk of ...
Apolipoprotein B Signal Peptide Polymorphism: Distribution and Influence on Lipid Parameters in Tunisian Population
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Apolipoprotein B (apo B) is the major protein component of LDL, VLDL and chylomicrons. Numerous polymorphisms of the apolipoprotein B gene have been described. Particularly, the insertion/deletion polymorphism located in the coding part of the signal peptide of apo B, associated ...
The Role of Adrenergic Agonists on Glycogenolysis in Rat Hepatocyte Cultures and Possible Involvement of NO
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Certain liver metabolic diseases point to the presence of disturbances in glycogen deposition. Epinephrine raises the cAMP level that activates protein kinase A leading to the activation of Phosphorylase and glycogen breakdown. In the present report, we sought to investigate ...
Effect of Nitric Oxide Release from NOR-3 on Urea Synthesis, Viability and Oxygen Consumption of Rat Hepatocyte Cultures
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary As nitric oxide is considered a mediator of liver oxidative metabolism during sepsis, we studied the effects of exogenous nitric oxide, produced by NO-donor, (±)-(E)-4-ethyl-2-[(E)-hydroxyimino]-5-nitro-3-hexenamide (NOR-3), on cell viability, urea biosynthesis and oxygen ...
Effect of Pectin and Amidated Pectin on Cholesterol Homeostasis and Cecal Metabolism in Rats Fed a High-Cholesterol Diet
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Two experiments were performed to compare the effect of pectin and its hydrophobic derivatives on homeostasis of cholesterol and cecal metabolism in male young rats. Control rats were fed a diet supplemented with palm fat and cholesterol (50 and 10 g/kg, respectively). Rats of ...
Raloxifen Prevents Bone Loss in Castrated Male Mice
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Raloxifen is a selective estrogen receptor modulator which prevents bone loss in ovariectomized female mice in a fashion similar to estrogens. Since testosterone-deficient male mice also lose bone mass, we were interested in testing the effects of raloxifen on bones in intact and ...
Salivary Cortisol in Low Dose (1 µg) ACTH Test in Healthy Women: Comparison with Serum Cortisol
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary To date, a single report has appeared on the use of salivary Cortisol for adrenal function testing with a low dose ACTH, although 1 µg has become preferred as a more physiological stimulus than the commonly used 250 µg ACTH test. Our present study was aimed to obtain ...
Periprosthetic Osteolysis and its Association with RANKL Expression
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Extensive osteolysis adjacent to orthopedic implants is often associated with wear particles of prosthetic material. The activation of the RANKL/RANK/OPG system is considered to be a likely cause of periprosthetic osteolysis leading to implant failure. The aim of this study was ...
Drugs Elevating Extracellular Adenosine Administered in vivo Induce Serum Colony-Stimulating Activity and Interleukin-6 in Mice
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Our previous studies have shown that the combined administration of drugs elevating extracellular adenosine, i.e. dipyridamole (DP) and adenosine monophosphate (AMP), enhances murine hematopoiesis and potentiates the action of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF). In ...
Proteinase-Activated Receptor-2 Expression in Breast Cancer and the Role of Trypsin on Growth and Metabolism of Breast Cancer Cell Line MDA MB-231
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Proteinase-activated receptor-2 (PAR-2) is a ubiquitous surface molecule participating in many biological processes. It belongs to the family of G protein-coupled receptors activated by the site-specific proteolysis of trypsin and similar proteases. Altered function of PAR-2 has ...
Depression and/or Potentiation of Cortical Responses after Status Epilepticus in Immature Rats
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Lithium-pilocarpine status epilepticus (SE) resulted in delayed changes of single cortical interhemisperic (transcallosal) responses in immature rats. Low-frequency stimulation inducing depression and/or potentiation was studied to analyze possible dynamic changes in cortical ...
CD36 Regulates Fatty Acid Composition and Sensitivity to Insulin in 3T3-L1 Adipocytes
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary In the current study, we tested a hypothesis that CD36 fatty acid (FA) transporter might affect insulin sensitivity by indirect effects on FA composition of adipose tissue. We examined the effects of CD36 downregulation by RNA interference in 3T3-L1 adipocytes on FA transport and ...
Ethanol Consumption Affects Lipoprotein Lipase Gene Expression in C57BL/6 Mice
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary The activity of lipoprotein lipase (LPL) is increased after alcohol consumption and can contribute to an increased level of HDL-cholesterol, which is considered to play a key role in the ethanol-mediated protective effect against cardiovascular disease. The increase in ...
Is NO the King? Pathophysiological Benefit with Uncertain Clinical Impact
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary NO is the "hero" molecule of the last few decades. It is a ubiquitous and omnipotent radical with both hemodynamic and antiproliferative effects within the cardiovascular system. NO is an important counterregulatory factor for vasoconstrictors and growth promoting substances ....
Simvastatin Decreased Coenzyme Q in the Left Ventricle and Skeletal Muscle but not in the Brain and Liver in L-NAME-Induced Hypertension
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Inhibitors of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase (statins) have been proven to reduce effectively cholesterol level and morbidity and mortality in patients with coronary heart disease and/or dyslipoproteinemia. Statins inhibit synthesis of mevalonate, a ...
The Role of Nitric Oxide in the Maintenance of Vasoactive Balance
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Endothelial dysfunction may be considered as the interstage between risk factors and cardiovascular pathology. An imbalance between the production of vasorelaxing and vasoconstricting factors plays a decisive role in the development of hypertension, atherosclerosis and target ...
Spironolactone Differently Influences Remodeling of the Left Ventricle and Aorta in L-NAME-Induced Hypertension
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Aldosterone receptor antagonist, spironolactone, has been shown to prevent remodeling of the heart in several models of left ventricular hypertrophy. The aim of the present study was to determine whether the treatment with spironolactone can prevent hypertension, reduction of ...
Contribution of Captopril Thiol Group to the Prevention of Spontaneous Hypertension
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary We aimed to compare the effect of angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors captopril (containing thiol group) and enalapril (without thiol group) on the development of spontaneous hypertension and to analyze mechanisms of their actions, particularly effects on oxidative ...
Comparison of the Effect of Simvastatin, Spironolactone and L-arginine on Endothelial Function of Aorta in Hereditary Hypertriglyceridemic Rats
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Hereditary hypertriglyceridemic (hHTG) rats are characterized by increased blood pressure and impaired endothelium-dependent relaxation of conduit arteries. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of long-term (4 weeks) treatment of hHTG rats with three drugs which, ...
Chronic Low-Dose L-NAME Treatment Increases Nitric Oxide Production and Vasorelaxation in Normotensive Rats
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary N^sup G^-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) is a non-specific nitric oxide (NO) synthase inhibitor, commonly used for the induction of NO-deficient hypertension. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of chronic low-dose administration of L-NAME on NO production, ...
Spontaneous, L-Arginine-Induced and Spironolactone-Induced Regression of Protein Remodeling of the Left Ventricle in L-NAME-Induced Hypertension
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary N^sup G^-nitro-L-arginine-methyl ester (L-NAME)-induced hypertension is associated with protein remodeling of the left ventricle. The aim of the study was to show, whether aldosterone receptor blocker spironolactone and precursor of NO-production L-arginine were able to reverse ...
Morphological Alterations and NO-Synthase Expression in the Heart after Continuous Light Exposure of Rats
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Although exposure to continuous light is associated with hypertension and modulates the outcome of ischemia-reperfusion injury, less attention has been paid to its effects on cardiac morphology. We investigated whether 4-week exposure of experimental rats to continuous 24 h/day ...
The Effect of Continuous Light Exposure of Rats on Cardiac Response to Ischemia-Reperfusion and NO-Synthase Activity
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Factors modulating cardiac susceptibility to ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) are permannetly attracting the attention of experimental cardiology research. We investigated, whether continuous 24 h/day light exposure of rats can modify cardiac response to I/R, NO-synthase (NOS) activity ...
Effect of Blood Pressure on L-NAME-sensitive Component of Vasorelaxation in Adult Rats
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary The aim of this study was to investigate nitric oxide (NO) production and L-NAME-sensitive component of endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation in adult normotensive Wistar-Kyoto rats (WKY), borderline hypertensive rats (BHR) and spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). Blood pressure ...
Chronic and Acute Effects of Different Antihypertensive Drugs on Femoral Artery Relaxation of L-NAME Hypertensive Rats
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary We aimed to compare the effects of chronic and acute administration of structurally different antihypertensives, diuretics - indapamide and hydrochlorothiazide, ACE inhibitor - captopril and indapamide+captopril combination on endothelium-dependent relaxation of femoral artery ...
Biological Effects of Two Successive Shock Waves Focused on Liver Tissues and Melanoma Cells
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary A new generator of two successive shock waves focused to a common focal point has been developed. Cylindrical pressure waves created by multichannel electrical discharges on two cylindrical composite anodes are focused by a metallic parabolic reflector - cathode, and near the ...
Biological Effects of Noble Gases
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Noble gases are known for their inertness. They do not react chemically with any element at normal temperature and pressure. Through that, some of them are known to be biologically active by their sedative, hypnotic and analgesic properties. Common inhalation anesthetics are ...
In vitro Study of Reactive Oxygen Species Production during Photodynamic Therapy in Ultrasound-Pretreated Cancer Cells
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Several recent studies bring evidence of cell death enhancement in photodynamic compound loaded cells by ultrasonic treatment. There are a number of hypotheses suggesting the mechanism of the harmful ultrasonic effect. One of them considers a process in the activation of ...
Mechanical Response of Porous Scaffolds for Cartilage Engineering
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Mechanical properties of scaffolds seeded with mesenchymal stem cells used for cartilage repair seem to be one of the critical factors in possible joint resurfacing. In this paper, the effect of adding hyaluronic acid, hydroxyapatite nanoparticles or chitosan nanofibers into the ...
Biomechanical Characterization of Cartilages by a Novel Approach of Blunt Impact Testing
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary The present article introduces a novel method of characterizing the macromechanical cartilage properties based on dynamic testing. The proposed approach of instrumented impact testing shows the possibility of more detailed investigation of the acting dynamic forces and ...
Effects of Static Magnetic Field and Pulsed Electromagnetic Field on Viability of Human Chondrocytes in vitro
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Effects of electromagnetic fields (EMFs) on human cell lines were described in numerous studies, but still many questions remain unanswered. Our experiment was designed with the aim of studying the effects of EMFs on the metabolic activity of chondrocytes in vitro. Human ...
Viscoelasticity of Biological Materials - Measurement and Practical Impact on Biomedicine
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Mechanical behavior of biological structures under dynamic loading generally depends on elastic as well as viscous properties of biological materials. The significance of "viscous" parameters in real situations remains to be elucidated. Behavior of rheological models consisting ...
Use of Chemical Dosimetry for Comparison of Ultrasound and Ionizing Radiation Effects on Cavitation
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary A comparison of the effects of ultrasound produced by low- and high-frequency ultrasonic apparatuses upon biological systems is one of the basic problems when studying ultrasound cavitation effects. One possibility for how to compare these effects is the indirect method which ...
Pyramid Projection - Validation of a New Method of Skin Defect Measurement
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary This paper presents a new method for the determination of the volume, surface area and depth of skin defects. The method is based on the description of a spatial defect using a pyramid (made, for example, from injection needles), which is placed over the defect. The projection of ...
Composite Hyaluronate-Type I Collagen-Fibrin Scaffold in the Therapy of Osteochondral Defects in Miniature Pigs
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary The potential of novel scaffold containing sodium hyaluronate, type I collagen, and fibrin was investigated in the regeneration of osteochondral defects in miniature pigs. Both autologous chondrocyte-seeded scaffolds and non-seeded scaffolds were implanted into two defects ...
Biochemical and Biophysical Aspects of Collagen Nanostructure in the Extracellular Matrix
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary ECM is composed of different collagenous and non-collagenous proteins. Collagen nanofibers play a dominant role in maintaining the biological and structural integrity of various tissues and organs, including bone, skin, tendon, blood vessels, and cartilage. Artificial collagen ...
Derivation of Sonograph Quality Parameters by the Use of Point Spread Function Analysis
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary A measuring system evaluating a Point Spread Function generated in an ultrasonographic image by scanning a spherical target was developed. The target is moved in measuring bath filled by water over scanned volume via 3D computer controlled positioning system. A video signal ...
P Wave Body Surface Isointegral Maps in Children and in Young Adults
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Only limited data are available on body surface potential distribution during atrial activation. The aim of this study was to establish the distributions and to analyze chosen quantitative parameters of atrial isointegral maps recorded using a limited 24-lead system in a young ...
Models of Stents - Comparison and Applications
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary The aim of this study was to analyze the possibilities of various types of stent modeling and to develop some new models. A brief survey of basic properties of stents and a list of basic designs of stents is presented. Two approaches to stent modeling were identified. Structural ...
Dependence of the Vulnerability Index on the Heart Cycle Length
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Index of vulnerability is a parameter based on ventricular gradient evaluating the risk of arrhythmia development. The index is derived from isointegral maps of the QT interval. Individual characteristics of isointegral maps are influenced by different factors, which contribute ...
Noninvasive Assessment of Local Myocardium Repolarization Changes using High Resolution Surface ECG Mapping
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary A method using body surface potential maps for assessment of myocardium lesions with changed repolarization is presented and suitable mapping system is introduced. Differences between normal and altered QRST integral maps together with torso volume conductor model were used to ...
Temperature Dependence of Blood Surface Tension
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Whole blood surface tension of 15 healthy subjects recorded by the ring method was investigated in the temperature range from 20 to 40 °C. The surface tension σ as a function of temperature t (°C) is described by an equation of linear regression as σ(t) = (-0.473 t + ...
Impedance Spectroscopy of Bilayer Lipid Membranes Self-assembled on Agar Support - Interaction with HDL
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary The electrical properties of the supported lipid bilayer membrane (s-BLM) of egg phosphatidylcholine (PC) self-assembled on agar surface were examined. To characterize the insulating properties of s-BLMs, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) was used. The analysis of ...
Use of 3D Geometry Modeling of Osteochondrosis-like Iatrogenic Lesions as a Template for Press-and-Fit Scaffold Seeded with Mesenchymal Stem Cells
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Computed tomography (CT) is an effective diagnostic modality for three-dimensional imaging of bone structures, including the geometry of their defects. The aim of the study was to create and optimize 3D geometrical and real plastic models of the distal femoral component of the ...
Comparative Modeling of the H^sub 4^-H^sub 5^-Loop of the [alpha]^sub 2^-Isoform of Na^sup +^/K^sup +^-ATPase [alpha]-Subunit in the E^sub 1^ Conformation
Jan 01, 2007; ... Summary Restraint-based comparative modeling was used for calculation and visualization of the H^sub 4^-H^sub 5^-loop of Na^sup +^/K^sup +^-ATPase from mouse brain (Mus musculus, adult male brain, α2-isoform) between the amino acid residues Cys^sup 336^ and Arg^sup 758^ in the E^sub ...