The Journal of Nutrition back issues from June 2004:
Introduction to the 3rd Amino Acid Assessment Workshop1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT A series of Amino Acid Assessment Workshops (AAAWs) are being organized and conducted to bring together experts in amino acid nutrition, metabolism, cell and molecular biology, toxicology, and regulation/policy with the eventual goal to establish a paradigm for the ...
Amino Acid Needs for Early Growth and Development1,2
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT Few data exist on amino acid needs in infants and children, mainly because until recently, amino acid requirements were determined using nitrogen balance. The advent of the indicator amino acid oxidation (IAAO) method permits studies to be conducted with minimal adaptation to ...
Amino Acid Adequacy in Pathophysiological States1,2
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT Amino acid utilization and, therefore, demand differ between the healthy state and various disease states. In the healthy state most circulating amino acids are derived from dietary proteins that are stored and broken down in the gut and released gradually into the portal ...
Pharmacogenetics and Individual Variation in the Range of Amino Acid Adequacy: The Biological Aspects1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT There have been major developments in our understanding of the ways in which genetic variation among individuals in a population can affect responses to drugs, and use of such information can improve the safety and efficacy of medicines. The brief review summarizes the emergence ...
Macronutrient Intakes as Determinants of Dietary Protein and Amino Acid Adequacy1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT It has long been known that dietary amino acid adequacy is markedly influenced by energy balance but in recent years the importance of this has been generally underestimated. Important practical issues include unintentional variation in energy intake and consequence energy ...
Variability in Planning and Assessment: Statistical Considerations and Models1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT Nutrition researchers are called upon to inform policymakers of the consequences of consuming different amounts of various nutrients: how much is enough, how much is too much, and why. Traditionally, requirements were described by population-average levels and some measure of ...
The Basis for Setting the Upper Range of Adequate Intake for Regulation of Macronutrient Intakes, Especially Amino Acids1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT The comparison of actual intakes of essential amino acids to the dietary reference intakes indicates that amino acid supply is likely not a public health concern in industrialized countries. This fact does not preclude the interest in specific amino acid intake in some ...
The Nature of Human Hazards Associated with Excessive Intake of Amino Acids1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT In recent years there has been a large increase in the consumption of individual amino acids as dietary supplements. This has resulted not only from the use of certain amino acids as flavoring agents, but other amino acids are taken for perceived health benefit, for enhancement ...
Animal Models of Human Amino Acid Responses1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT The principal differences between experimental animals and humans with regard to amino acid responses are 1) growing animals partition most of their amino acid intake to protein accretion, whereas growing children partition most of their intake to maintenance; 2) invasive ...
Animal Models of Amino Acid Metabolism: A Focus on the Intestine1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT One important advantage of animal models is that they permit invasive approaches and can be especially valuable when evaluating tissue and specific features of metabolism in situ. The focus of this presentation is current models, which are providing insights into the pivotal ...
Discussion of Sessions 5-7 at the 3rd Amino Acid Assessment Workshop (3rd AAAW)1
Jun 01, 2004; ... Cynober: This discussion section deals primarily with this question: which model for which amino acid? To start the discussion, I would like to ask a question to Vicky Baracos. In the figure you showed us about the extraction of amino acids by portal-drain viscera, I noticed that there was no ...
The Discovery of Vitamin D: The Contribution of Adolf Windaus
Jun 01, 2004; ... The Nobel prize for chemistry for 1928 was awarded to Adolf Windaus "for his studies on the constitution of the sterols and their connection with vitamins" (1), the first person to receive an award mentioning vitamins. What was the contribution Windaus made to our knowledge of vitamins that ...
Exogenous Nucleosides Stimulate Proliferation of Fetal Rat Hepatocytes1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT Exogenous nucleotides (NT) have been reported to exert a reparative role in animal models of intestinal and hepatic damage. Thus, the administration of NT in the diet of rats with thioacetamide-induced liver cirrhosis normalized many of the histological and biochemical ...
Fish Protein Hydrolysate Reduces Plasma Total Cholesterol, Increases the Proportion of HDL Cholesterol, and Lowers Acyl-CoA:Cholesterol Acyltransferase Activity in Liver of Zucker Rats1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT There is growing evidence that soy protein improves the blood lipid profiles of animals and humans. We compared the effects of fish protein hydrolysate (FPH), soy protein, and casein (control) on lipid metabolism in Wistar rats and genetically obese Zucker (fa/fa) rats. In ...
The [alpha]' Subunit from Soybean 7S Globulin Lowers Plasma Lipids and Upregulates Liver [beta]-VLDL Receptors in Rats Fed a Hypercholesterolemic Diet1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT Recent data concerning the effect of soybean 7S globulin subunits on the upregulation of LDL receptors in Hep G2 cells identified the [alpha]' subunit as the candidate responsible for this biological effect. In vivo evaluation of this subunit on cholesterol homeostasis was ...
Dietary Canola and Soybean Oil Fed to SHRSP Rat Dams Differently Affect the Growth and Survival of Their Male Pups1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT Canola oil (Can), as well as some other oils, shortens the survival of SHRSP rats compared with soybean oil (Soy). Although detrimental factors other than phytosterols have not been identified, they are likely to be hydrophobic and transmittable to pups. To test this ...
Trans10,cis12-18:2 Is a More Potent Inhibitor of De Novo Fatty Acid Synthesis and Desaturation than cis9,trans11-18:2 in the Mammary Gland of Lactating Mice1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT To investigate the effects of 2 conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) isomers and trans11-18:1 (TVA) on de novo lipogenesis and desaturation in liver and mammary gland, lactating mice were fed diets containing 3% canola oil (control) or 2% canola oil plus 1% stearic acid (SA), TVA, ...
Thermally Oxidized Dietary Fat Upregulates the Expression of Target Genes of PPAR[alpha] in Rat Liver1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT Oxidized fats affect animal metabolism in several ways. To gain a comprehensive understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the effects of dietary oxidized fats in rats at varying dietary vitamin E concentrations, the gene expression profile of the liver was monitored ...
A Large Pool of Available Folate Exists in the Large Intestine of Human Infants and Piglets1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT Many microorganisms in the large intestine are capable of synthesizing folate. Preliminary evidence suggests that this folate may be absorbed. The purpose of the 2 experiments reported herein was to estimate the pool of folate in the feces of human infants and piglets and to ...
Individual Serum Triglyceride Responses to High-Fat and Low-Fat Diets Differ in Men with Modest and Severe Hypertriglyceridemia
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT It is not yet clear whether a low-fat or a high-fat diet is more suitable for the treatment of hypertriglyceridemia. Therefore, we conducted a dietary study with nonobese hypertriglyceridemic men using a randomized crossover design. After a 2-wk acclimation period, the subjects ...
Energy Expenditure Is Very High in Extremely Obese Women1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT To test the hypothesis that total energy expenditure (TEE) and resting energy expenditure (REE) are low in extremely obese individuals, factors that could contribute to maintenance of excess weight, a cross-sectional study was conducted in 30 weight stable, extremely obese women ...
Weight Loss During Pregnancy Is Associated with Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes among HIV-1 Infected Women1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT In a prospective study of 1002 pregnant, HIV-1 infected Tanzanian women, we examined the incidence of fetal death, preterm delivery, low birth weight (LBW), and small for gestational age (SGA) births in relation to maternal anthropometry at the first prenatal visit, weight loss, ...
Growth in Young Filipino Children Predicts Schooling Trajectories through High School1,2
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT Several studies link childhood malnutrition to adverse schooling outcomes, including delayed or diminished enrollment and increased grade repetition. However, the effects of nutrition on schooling trajectories are obscured by the cross-sectional nature of most previous research ...
A High-Whey-Protein Diet Reduces Body Weight Gain and Alters Insulin Sensitivity Relative to Red Meat in Wistar Rats1,2
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT A high-protein diet can reduce body weight and increase insulin sensitivity, but whether the type of dietary protein affects these outcomes is unknown. We hypothesized that feeding insulin-resistant rats a high-protein diet (32%) containing whey protein concentrate (WPC) would ...
Onset of Small Intestinal Atrophy Is Associated with Reduced Intestinal Blood Flow in TPN-Fed Neonatal Piglets1,2
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT Our aim was to determine the speed of onset of total parenteral nutrition (TPN)-induced mucosal atrophy, and whether this is associated with changes in intestinal blood flow and tissue metabolism in neonatal piglets. Piglets were implanted with jugular venous and duodenal ...
Dietary Fiber Stabilizes Blood Glucose and Insulin Levels and Reduces Physical Activity in Sows (Sus scrofa)1,2
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to test whether a diet with a high level of fermentable dietary fiber can stabilize interprandial blood glucose and insulin levels, prevent declines below basal levels, and reduce physical activity in limited-fed breeding sows. Stable levels of glucose ...
Prenatal Protein Restriction Does Not Affect the Proliferation and Differentiation of Rat Preadipocytes1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT Poor development in utero may favor the development of obesity in adulthood. Animal studies showed that embryo manipulation in vitro or nutritional insults during the embryonic and fetal stages of development may lead to obesity in adult life. We studied the in vitro ...
Dietary Soy Protein Attenuates Renal Disease Progression After 1 and 3 Weeks in Han:SPRD-cy Weanling Rats1,2
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT Compared with casein, dietary soy protein slows disease progression in animal models of chronic renal injury. To determine whether dietary soy protein feeding can alter early disease progression, male Han:SPRD-cy rats (n = 87) in a very early stage of chronic kidney disease were ...
A Very High 70%-Protein Diet Does Not Induce Conditioned Taste Aversion in Rats
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT This study was designed to assess the effects of transition and adaptation to a very high protein diet on behavioral food responses, energy intake, body weight gain, and body composition in rats. For this purpose, adult male Wistar rats were fed either a diet with 70% of energy ...
Xylooligosaccharides and Fructooligosaccharides Affect the Intestinal Microbiota and Precancerous Colonic Lesion Development in Rats1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT Certain nondigestible oligosaccharides can be selectively utilized by probiotics and reduce the risk of colon cancer. However, the inhibitory effects of xylooligosaccharides (XOS) on colon cancer are not well documented. This study evaluated the effects of xylooligosaccharides ...
Dietary Supplementation with High-Selenium Soy Protein Reduces Pulmonary Metastasis of Melanoma Cells in Mice1,2
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT The effect of high-selenium (Se) soy protein on pulmonary metastasis of murine B16BL6 melanoma cells was investigated in male C57BL6 mice. Isolated soy proteins (ISP) from soybeans grown with and without Se foliar application during seed development were compared. Five diets ...
The Intracellular Free Amino Acid Pool Represents Tracer Precursor Enrichment for Calculation of Protein Synthesis in Cultured Fibroblasts and Myocytes1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT We assessed the approach of using intracellular free amino acid enrichment as precursor enrichment for calculating the fractional synthetic rate of using the stable isotope tracer incorporation technique. We assumed that the true rate of protein synthesis was reflected by the ...
What Are the Essential Elements Needed for the Determination of Amino Acid Requirements in Humans?1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT The aims of this introductory article are to survey and critically evaluate the concepts and approaches that have been used to assess amino acid adequacy and to hypothesize about possible future directions of research. The issue in question is extensive, consequently this ...
Dedication
Jun 01, 2004; ... This Workshop is dedicated to Vernon R. Young, Ph.D. Dr. Young was born in Wales and was awarded a B.Sc. degree in agriculture at the University of Reading and a postgraduate diploma in agriculture at the University of Cambridge before coming to the United States, where he received his Ph.D. in ...
Advancing Age and Other Factors Influencing the Balance between Amino Acid Requirements and Toxicity1,2
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT As the average human lifespan increases, so does the recognition that advancing age is associated with changes in nutrient intake and requirements as a consequence of biological, social, and pathological factors. Studies show that whereas protein requirements may not differ ...
Exercise Promotes BCAA Catabolism: Effects of BCAA Supplementation on Skeletal Muscle during Exercise1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT Branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) are essential amino acids that can be oxidized in skeletal muscle. It is known that BCAA oxidation is promoted by exercise. The mechanism responsible for this phenomenon is attributed to activation of the branched-chain [alpha]-keto acid ...
Discussion of Sessions 1 and 2 at the 3rd Amino Acid Assessment Workshop (3rd AAAW)1
Jun 01, 2004; ... Hebuterne: Now it is the time for our general discussion. We will discuss the amino acid requirements in pathologic states. To introduce this debate I would like to tell you that for a clinician it is really a very important problem. As Peter Furst said in the first lecture, there are very few ...
Clinical Manifestations of Inborn Errors of the Urea Cycle and Related Metabolic Disorders during Childhood1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT Various disorders cause hyperammonemia during childhood. Among them are those caused by inherited defects in urea synthesis and related metabolic pathways. These disorders can be grouped into two types: disorders of the enzymes that comprise the urea cycle, and disorders of the ...
Establishing the Upper End of the Range of Adequate and Safe Intakes for Amino Acids: A Toxicologist's Viewpoint1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT The safety assessment of high intake levels of individual amino acids cannot be based on data from nutritional studies with proteins. Routine toxicity tests designed to investigate a wide range of possible effects should be undertaken for hazard identification and ...
Discussion of Sessions 3 and 4 at the 3rd Amino Acid Assessment Workshop (3rd AAAW)1
Jun 01, 2004; ... Furst: This discussion session is devoted to the major question: what should we do about variability in response among individuals and groups? This was the question proposed by the organizer. Personally, I am also very interested in how we consider this question in the clinical setting. The ...
Biomarkers for Cancer Diagnosis: Implications for Nutritional Research1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT The biology of disease progression is a complex process that involves multiple sequential steps leading to cellular changes and metabolic events. These molecular events, which may serve as potential biomarkers, can be analyzed by laboratory methods and used to detect a disease ...
Potential Approaches to the Assessment of Amino Acid Adequacy in Rats: A Progress Report1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT We report on research progress on two approaches that may be useful in determining the upper adequacy range for macronutrients such as amino acids. One approach was to attempt to identify "toxic metabolites" that were responsible for toxicity or biomarkers for the toxicity of ...
Approaches to Assessment of Exposure to Food- and Supplement-Derived Amino Acids1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT Although the amino acid composition of almost all food proteins is known, estimating the amino acid intake from the diet is extremely difficult because of the lack of available data. A conservative approach would be to determine the population distribution of protein intake, ...
General Discussion at the 3rd Amino Acid Assessment Workshop (3rd AAAW)1
Jun 01, 2004; ... Young: Now we will turn to the general discussion that we have included in the program. What we thought we would like to do is give all of you an opportunity to contribute to the discussion: to think about how your presentation possibly might lead us closer to identifying, or help us to ...
New Evidence of Iron and Zinc Interplay at the Enterocyte and Neural Tissues1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT Because combined iron-zinc supplementation regimens are employed with increasing frequency in field trials to combat co-occurring iron and zinc deficiencies, there is a growing concern for potential antagonisms between these 2 metals. Several supplementation trials hinted at ...
Genistein at a Concentration Present in Soy Infant Formula Inhibits Caco-2BBe Cell Proliferation by Causing G2/M Cell Cycle Arrest1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT Fifteen percent of all U.S. infants are fed soy formulas containing up to 47 mg/L of isoflavones (>65% as genistin + genistein); thus, these infants' intestines are exposed to a high dose of genistein, a phytoestrogen and tyrosine kinase inhibitor. Little attention has been ...
Maternal Zinc Deficiency Raises Plasma Prolactin Levels in Lactating Rats1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT There is an inverse relation between zinc (Zn) intake and plasma prolactin in men and nonpregnant women. Whether a relation exists in lactating women is unknown, despite the potential consequences of perturbations in prolactin regulation on lactation performance. We examined the ...
Increased Heme Oxygenase-1 Expression during Copper Deficiency in Rats Results from Increased Mitochondrial Generation of Hydrogen Peroxide1-4
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT The activity of hepatic heme oxygenase (HO) in rats is elevated in response to copper deficiency. However, the mechanism responsible for the increase in HO activity is poorly understood. Oxidative stress is a common denominator for many of the signals that induce HO-1, the ...
The Chalcone Xanthohumol Inhibits Triglyceride and Apolipoprotein B Secretion in HepG2 Cells1,2
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT The present study examined the role of xanthohumol (XN), a plant chalcone, on apolipoprotein B (apoB) and triglyceride (TG) synthesis and secretion, using HepG2 cells as the model system. The data indicated that XN decreased apoB secretion in a dose-dependent manner under both ...
Hypothalamic Gene Expression Is Altered in Underweight but Obese Juvenile Male Sprague-Dawley Rats Fed a High-Energy Diet1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT The incidence of obesity, with its associated health risks, is on the increase throughout the western world affecting all age groups, including children. The typical western diet is high in fat and sugar and low in complex carbohydrates. This study looks at the effects of ...
Docosahexaenoic Acid and Eicosapentaenoic Acid, but Not [alpha]-Linolenic Acid, Suppress Deoxynivalenol-Induced Experimental IgA Nephropathy in Mice1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT Diets enriched in the (n-3) PUFAs, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and their precursor [alpha]-linolenic acid (ALA), were evaluated for efficacy in ameliorating the development of IgA nephropathy (IgAN) induced in mice by the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol ...
Yeast-Leavened Oat Breads with High or Low Molecular Weight [beta]-Glucan Do Not Differ in Their Effects on Blood Concentrations of Lipids, Insulin, or Glucose in Humans1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT Increased intestinal viscosity appears to be the major mode of action by which dietary oat [beta]-glucan increases the fecal excretion of bile acids and thereby lowers blood cholesterol concentrations. The objective of this experiment was to investigate whether there is a ...
Nonesterified Phytosterols Dissolved and Recrystallized in Oil Reduce Plasma Cholesterol in Gerbils and Humans
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT When free phytosterols are adequately heated and then cooled in fat, they recrystallize and are rendered bioavailable for blocking cholesterol absorption. To extend the application of phytosterols to fried foods, the activity of these modified crystals was assessed in 2 ...
Dietary Echium Oil Increases Plasma and Neutrophil Long-Chain (n-3) Fatty Acids and Lowers Serum Triacylglycerols in Hypertriglyceridemic Humans
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT A wealth of evidence indicates that consumption of fish or dietary fish oils containing long-chain (n-3) PUFA such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is associated with cardiovascular benefit, including a reduction in circulating triacylglycerol ...
Psychosocial Intervention Improves the Development of Term Low-Birth-Weight Infants1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT It is estimated that 11% of births in developing counties are term low-birth-weight (LBW); however, there is limited information on the development of these infants. Our objectives were to determine the effect of psychosocial intervention on the development of LBW infants and to ...
Food Insecurity Is Associated with Adverse Health Outcomes among Human Infants and Toddlers1,2
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT The U.S. Household Food Security Scale, developed with federal support for use in national surveys, is an effective research tool. This study uses these new measures to examine associations between food insecurity and health outcomes in young children. The purpose of this study ...
Arctic Indigenous Peoples Experience the Nutrition Transition with Changing Dietary Patterns and Obesity1-3
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT Indigenous Peoples globally are part of the nutrition transition. They may be among the most extreme for the extent of dietary change experienced in the last few decades. In this paper, we report survey data from 44 representative communities from 3 large cultural areas of the ...
Increased Lipogenesis and Fatty Acid Reesterification Contribute to Hepatic Triacylglycerol Stores in Hyperlipidemic Txnip^sup -/-^ Mice1,2
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT The effect of decreased fatty acid oxidation on liver lipid metabolism in HcB-19 mice, a mouse model of hyperlipidemia (Txnip^sup -/-^), was investigated using metabolic labeling. De novo cholesterol synthesis and de novo lipogenesis were quantified using 1-^sup 13^C^sub 1^ ...
Avenanthramides and Phenolic Acids from Oats Are Bioavailable and Act Synergistically with Vitamin C to Enhance Hamster and Human LDL Resistance to Oxidation1,2
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT The intake of phenolic acids and related polyphenolic compounds has been inversely associated with the risk of heart disease, but limited information is available about their bioavailability or mechanisms of action. Polyphenolics, principally avenanthramides, and simple phenolic ...
Well-Characterized Garlic-Derived Materials Are Not Hypolipidemic in APOE*3-Leiden Transgenic Mice1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT Garlic is reported to have beneficial effects on risk factors associated with cardiovascular disease, including normalization of plasma lipid levels. However, numerous studies do not support this beneficial effect of garlic on plasma lipids. This contradiction may result from ...
Dietary Antibiotic Growth Promoters Enhance the Bioavailability of [alpha]-Tocopheryl Acetate in Broilers by Altering Lipid Absorption1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT The influence of intestinal microbial bile salt deconjugation on absorption of fatty acids and [alpha]- and [gamma]-tocopherol was investigated in a trial with Ross 208 broilers. Birds (n = 1600) were assigned to 4 dietary treatments: no supplementation or supplementation of ...
Bioavailability of Quercetin in Pigs Is Influenced by the Dietary Fat Content1,2
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT The flavonol quercetin is one of the most prevalent flavonoids found in edible plants. In this study, the influence of dietary fat on oral bioavailability of quercetin was investigated. Quercetin (30 µmol/kg body weight) was administered either as the lipophilic aglycone or as ...
Low Maternal Dietary Intakes of Iron, Magnesium, and Niacin Are Associated with Spina Bifida in the Offspring1
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT Evidence about the preventive effects of nutrients other than folate on the occurrence of spina bifida is scarce. Therefore, the aim of this work was to investigate the role of maternal nutritional intake and the risk of spina bifida in the offspring. In 106 cases and 181 ...
A Flavonoid Fraction from Cranberry Extract Inhibits Proliferation of Human Tumor Cell Lines1,2
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT In light of the continuing need for effective anticancer agents, and the association of fruit and vegetable consumption with reduced cancer risk, edible plants are increasingly being considered as sources of anticancer drugs. Cranberry presscake (the material remaining after ...
Reproducibility and Validity of Major Dietary Patterns among Swedish Women Assessed with a Food-Frequency Questionnaire
Jun 01, 2004; ... ABSTRACT Defining dietary patterns by factor analysis is an alternative approach to dietary assessment that has been used recently to examine diet-disease relations. However, only 1 study evaluated the reproducibility and validity of this method. Our aim was to assess both the validity ...