Article: Species, subspecies, and races.

The human species can be looked at from two quite different perspectives. The first perspective is that we are unique--fundamentally different from all other species. How do we protect ourselves from such antigens as viruses? Advocates of the uniqueness thesis would reply, "by our own uniquely human immune system." This perspective is captured by the constant refrain that one cannot reason from studies done on other organisms to humans. Of course, we do make such inferences--all the time. In fact, by law, new drugs must be tested on other species before they can be tested on human beings. Such laws seem strange if reasoning from other species to human beings is so illicit. ...

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