Unification of the Four Fundamental Forces of Nature by a Binary Quantum Model

I. INTRODUCTION

During the last century, established physics could celebrate the experimental verification of their most important theories such as the theory of special and general relativity. Also in Quantum Physics, a lot of assertions could be verified. But much more important are the usually unspectacular experimental results, which falsify a theory. One of these unspectacular experimental results is the so-called Allais effect. [1] The Allais effect is a real effect, which can periodically be observed during a solar eclipse, where the Moon changes in tiny parts the direction of the gravitational effect of the Sun on the Earth. According to the Allais effect, gravitation must be an indirect effect, which is caused by something that moves through the Moon and which can with a diminutive probability be deviated by the matter of the Moon. This falsifies the general theory of relativity and does not correspond with the qualities of a so-called Higgsbosom. Please read Sec. XII and see Fig. 8 to know about the Allais effect. By the "new theory of gravitation" (NTG) [2] of the author, it is possible to explain the Allais effect, the observed increase of the astronomical unit by approximately 7 m per century, as well as the so-called anomalous secular increase of the eccentricity of the lunar orbit. [1, 3-5] The scientific problem of modern physics is that it has lost its falsifiability since it started to introduce for any new particle phenomenon an new quantum number and for any emerging contradiction a new theoretical mechanism such as the Higgs-mechanism that shall give mass to elementary particles. But the problem started already with the theory of relativity by Albert Einstein. If one measured another light velocity than c, this would be corrected by the imagination of space or length contraction, so that experiments trying to falsify

the imagination of an invariant light velocity, which is the basis of the theory of relativity, must fail. It is the same with the so-called proof of certain mechanisms at CERN, because meanwhile, depending on the moving energy of the colliding particles (protons and antiprotons), there can be produced any particle of a certain mass that is needed to proof the mechanism in question. That there must be something wrong with modern physics shows the fact that quantum physics and the theory for the phenomenon of gravitation, the so-called general theory of relativity, cannot brought together. By the NTG so-called special and general relativistic phenomena are calculated within a Euclidean three-dimensional space. So the NTG induces a new sight on quantum physics and on cosmology leading to the "binary quantum theory" (BQT) introduced in this article.

II. THE NEW CONCEPT OF GRAVITATION OF THE NTG

Today gravitational effects are described by Einstein's general theory of relativity, which uses "time" as a fourth dimension, additional to the usual three-dimensional space. But as I could show in the NTG [2] there is no need to use four dimensions. By very simple considerations and calculations, it is possible to calculate so-called general relativistic effects either. The considerations are simple: If an electromagnetic wave or a mass is moving within a gravitational field, it is confronted with more particles, which generate the phenomenon of gravitation (today usually called gravitons), dependent from their velocity. This must lead to additional gravitational effects, which can be calculated by Einstein's general theory of relativity, as well as by the NTG. Also the so-called special relativistic phenomena could be calculated by the NTG by similar simple considerations. In order to understand the considerations well that lead to the BQT it is conducive, if one has read the former article of the author "On the new theory of gravitation" (NTG) published in Physics Essays. [2]

According to the NTG of the author, masses must emit some kind of particles, which have no mass and which move through space at the velocity of light. I called these particles "space-particles" (s-particles in short). The space-particles should exist within space "filling up the vacuum" moving randomly through space at the velocity of light. S-particles should be able to get absorbed or should be able to adhere to a mass and after a certain amount of time should be emitted again by the mass. The impulse or energy the mass might get by the absorption or adherence of a space-particle should be lost again by the emission of the s-particle. In the following, I prefer to consider an adherence of s-particles to a mass. By the emission of space-particles, the former randomly distributed space-particles get a spatial orientation, as they now move radially away from the mass. Without a mass or an elemental particle, the s-particles filling up the "vacuum" the s-particles move randomly through space at the velocity of light, so that there cannot result gravitational effects, as in this case the distribution of s-particles was the same anywhere within space. Hereby an elemental particle, or a mass, causes a lack of s-particles in the surrounding of a mass. While the NTG takes place in Euclidean space, Einstein's space is non-Euclidean, or a so-called curved space. In order to understand the gravitational effects in detail, I considered the lack of a s-particle as an abstract particle in itself which I called a "ls-particle" for short. As the emitted space-particles move away from a certain mass at the velocity of light, the gravitational effect should also be spreading at the velocity of light. The emergence of ls-particles in the area of a mass and its surrounding therefore depend on the velocity of light, although the low space-pressure area caused by a mass moves with the mass through space, as if it rested against the mass. The emitted s-particles of a certain mass should lead to repulsion effects on another mass analogously as the light-pressure of the sunlight does on the particles released by comets, but this effect must be smaller than the opposite gravitational effect caused by the ls-particles. As mentioned above, the gravitational effect must be proportional to the number of s-particles which are emitted by a certain mass. This also means that the number of ls-particles a mass is confronted with must be proportional to the number of sparticles a mass is confronted with. The successful calculation of so-called special and general relativistic effects by the NTG (2) encouraged me to examine, if beside the gravitational force the other fundamental physical forces could be derived by a similar mechanism.

III. A BINARY CONCEPT OF QUANTUM PHYSICS

Let us have a basic look on the electromagnetic force. Because of the existence of "positive" and "negative" charges of elemental particles (for example, the positron and the electron), a positron or an electron must cause positive and negative basic material structures in its surrounding. A positron or an electron causes an electromagnetic field energy, respectively, an electromagnetic potential by sending off this "particles." But the charged elemental particles cannot produce these particles themselves, without losing energy or something of their structure, what is not the case. As particles with electromagnetic charges do not seem to change their characteristics by the time, we have to expect that charged elemental particles get a permanent input of either negative or positive space-particles from the vacuum, sending them again off into the vacuum. As I did not want to introduce a new kind of space-particle (which I already introduced in the NTG), the existence of positive and negative charges of elemental particles suggests that there exist two kinds of space-particles, negative and positive space-particles, which I want to call positive basic space-particle and negative basic space-particle in the following, or in short bs-[particle.sup.+] and bs-[particle.sup.-], see Fig. 1.

The bs-[particles.sup.+] and bs-[particles.sup.-] should exist within space filling up the vacuum, moving randomly through space at the velocity of light. Bs-particles should be able adhere to a positron or an electron and after a certain time should be emitted again into space. The impulse or energy the mass might get by the adherence of a bs-particle is lost again by the emission of the bs-particle. By the emission of one sort of bs-particles, either negative or positive bs-particles, by a positron or electron, the former randomly distributed bs-particles get a spatial orientation, as they now move radially away from the charged elemental particle. By this process, more negative or positive bs-particles are leaving the spatial area of a charged elemental particle than negative of positive bs-particles are randomly moving into the spatial area of this charged elemental particle.

The simplest possible imagination is that also material structures of elemental particles consist of basic particles. As I do not want to introduce further particles, I postulate that there should also exist two kinds of basic particles, namely, positive and negative basic particles, or for short b-[particles.sup.+] and b-[particles.sup.-]. These positive and negative basic-particles (b-[particles.sup.+] and b-[particles.sup.-]) should be identical with the positive and negative basic space-particles (bs-[particles.sup.+] and bs-[particles.sup.-]). While basic-particles (b-[particles.sup.+] and b-[particles.sup.-]) must be considered to be condensed or bound basic s-particles building up particles, positive and negative basic space-particles (bs-[particles.sup.+] and bs-[particles.sup.-]) must be considered to be free basic particles moving through space. Only to differ between free and bound basic particles, the free space particles I named basic space-particles, or bs-[particles.sup.+] for short, and the bound condensed basic particles I named only basic particles, or b-[particles.sup.+] and b-[particles.sup.-]for short. The basic-particles or basic space-particles (b-particles or bs-particles) have to be expected to be very small, so that even neutrinos would be huge particles, so that we should not expect to be ever able to evidence them directly by experimental methods, therefore, of course the following considerations must be to a certain degree speculative consideration. Nevertheless, as I will be able to point out later, based on my imaginations we will be able to calculate the so-called fine-structure constant alpha from the decay times of pions and unify the four basic physical forces.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

Because of the production of an electron-positron pair in the Coulomb field of a nucleus or an electron, whereas electromagnetic radiation with a certain minimum energy gets transformed in a negative charged electron and a positive charged positron, we must assume that electromagnetic radiation consists of positive bs-particles (bs-[particles.sup.+]) and negative bs-particles (bs-[particles.sup.-]). The negative charged electron must on the other hand consist of one sort of b-particles and a positive charged positron must consist of another sort of b-particles. Because of the observation that electrons and positrons are attracting each other and electrons are distracting electrons, as well as positrons are distracting positrons, we might conclude that positive basic particles and negative basic particles are attracting each other and positive and positive, as well as negative and negative basic particles are distracting each other. But, if this would be the case, elemental particles would always consist of the same amount of positive and negative basic particles, so that there could not result positive or negative charged particles, such as positrons or electrons, because matter should then always have neutral qualities. We therefore have to postulate that negative basic particles (b-[particles.sup.-]) are attracting b-[particles.sup.-] and that positive basic particles (b-[particles.sup.+]) are attracting b-[particles.sup.+], because only then should free b-particles be able to be transformed in condensed b-particles of material structures with different "electric charges," respectively, with different algebraic signs.

To build up larger structures, as for example, positrons or electrons, for a b-particle it must be possible to bind on at least two sides to other b-particles. If a b-particle had more than two binding possibilities, for b-particles with the same algebraic sign, we would expect the existence of larger particles than positrons or electrons consisting only of b-[particles.sup.+] or b-[particles.sup.-], what would result in elemental particles with stronger electric charged fields than the so-called elemental electric charge, what is not realized in reality. As the positrons or electrons are very stably, the binding between b-[particles.sup.+] and b-[particles.sup.+] and between b-[particles.sup.-] and b-[particles.sup.-], building up either a positron or an electron, should be relatively strong, so that we should call this binding between b-particles "strong binding force," see Fig. 2. On the other hand, as there exist much larger elemental particles than electrons or positrons, which are neutral or have the same elemental charge as the small electrons and positrons, for b-[particles.sup.+] and b-[particles.sup.-], there should exist a weaker binding possibility between b-particles with different algebraic signs, so that we should call the weak binding between b-particles "weak binding force," see Fig. 3. As we will see later, the strong binding force is correlated with the so-called strong nuclear force. The strong binding force, respectively, the strong nuclear force, can be interpreted as a direct effect between strong binding structures of b-particles with the same algebraic sign. As the strong nuclear force has a range of about [10.sup.-15] m, the strong binding structures on b-particles or bs-particles should be relatively long structures. The weak binding force is caused by the short binding structures binding to long binding structures with different algebraic signs of different kinds of basic-particles, which is correlated with the so-called weak nuclear force. As the weak nuclear force has a range of about [10.sup.-18] m, the weak binding structures on b-particles or bs-particles should be relatively short structures. I introduce in this article a structural-mechanistic model based on basic particle structures. I differ between long strong binding structures and short weak binding structures on a basic particle. So we get on the whole two different kinds of basic-particles, positive and negative basic particles (b-particles), which are bound basic particles and identical with free positive and negative basic space-particles (bs-particles). According to that, a positive b-particle or positive bs-particle has a positive long binding structure and a negative short binding structure. A negative b-particle or a negative bs-particle has a negative long binding structure and a positive short binding structure. The negative short binding structure of a positive basic particle can bind weak to the negative long binding structure of a negative basic particle. The positive short binding structure of a negative basic particle can bind weak to the positive long binding structure of a positive basic particle. The positive long binding structure of a positive basic particle can bind strong to the positive long binding structure of another positive basic particle. The negative long binding structure of a negative basic particle can bind strong to the negative long binding structure of another a negative basic particle, see Figs. 1-3.

[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]

[FIGURE 3 OMITTED]

As I want to introduce a structural-mechanistic quantum theory only based on basic particles, I do not want to postulate further particles that mediate the four fundamental forces, as it is postulated by today's physics, for example, the postulated gravitons that mediate the force of gravitation. But how could the basic particles be able to bind to each other in a mechanistic way? The author imagines that on the long and short binding structures there exist some kind of velcro structures at the end of the bindings structures, which are able to connect to each other. Velcro structures on the long and short binding structures would not interfere with each other, as long as they pass each other quickly or do not have sufficient proximity to each other. A fixed connection would then only happen, if the velcro structures were exposed to a certain pressure of basic particles. A fixed connection would also be favored by an advantageous arrangement of the basic space particles within space, as is realized at electromagnetic radiation. This is the reason why electromagnetic radiation can be easily transformed into material structures.

By the weak binding force, there can only result a temporary binding or adherence between condensed basic particles or between condensed basic particles and free basic space-particles (bs-particles), so that there can result the gravitational effect and charge effects by emitting bs-particles, which have been adhered for a certain time to the condensed basic particles the particles shall consist of. The free bs-particles moving through space shall usually not be able to build up material structures spontaneously, but only if there is a reason for condensation, as for example, if particles with adhered bs-particles collide with high velocity. Then the bs-particles, which are adhered to the b-particles of particles, should be able to condense to b-particles and build up new particles. This we can see when so-called energy is transformed into matter. According to my considerations, there only exist attracting forces, an attracting strong binding force also correlated with the so-called strong nuclear force, an attracting weak binding force, correlated with the so-called weak nuclear force and with the attracting electromagnetic force and the attracting gravitational force.

But how can we explain the effect that elemental particles, such as electrons or positrons, with the same algebraic sign of charges are seemingly distracting each other with the same strength elemental particles with different algebraic signs of charges are attracting each other. As the electron causes a so-called negative charged field consisting of bs-[particles.sup.-], according to the possible binding forces introduced above, we have to postulate that an electron consists of b-[particles.sup.+] binding on each side by the long binding structure to other b-[particles.sup.+]. The b-[particles.sup.+] should hereby be disposed in one line each binding on both sides with another b-[particle.sup.+] probably forming a certain part of a circle. But on the surface of an electron, there remain the short binding negative structures of the b-[particles.sup.+] the electron consists of, which can weakly bind to the long binding negative structures of free bs-[particles.sup.-], but only for a certain time, so that the free bs-[particles.sup.-] leave the electron again moving away from the electron with the velocity of light in all directions. This spreading of bs-[particles.sup.-] from an electron can be equated with the negative elemental charge surrounding of an electron and spreading into space from the electron with the velocity of light in all directions from the electron, corresponding with the physical term "Coulomb field." Similar to the effect introduced at the explanation of the gravitational effect, more free negative bs-particles than positive bs-particles are leaving the electron radially, so that there results a gradient with more free negative bs-particles around the electron and therefore also relative less free positive bs-particles in the direction of the electron. But on the opposite side, there results a gradient with relative less free negative bs-particles and therefore also relative more free positive bs-particles. If two electrons are brought together, they should be pushed away from each other by the more frequent free negative bs-particles moving away from each electron, as each electron is pulled away by the stream of the emitted negative bs-particles of each electron. The positron consisting of negative b-particles with free positive short binding structures on its surface will in this case be pushed toward the position of an electron by the relative more frequent free positive bs-particles moving toward the electron.

As the positron causes a so-called positive charged field consisting of bs-[particles.sup.+], according to the possible binding forces introduced above, we have to postulate that a positron consists of b-[particles.sup.-] binding on each side by the long binding structure to other b-[particles.sup.-]. The b-[particles.sup.-] should hereby disposed in one line each binding on both sides with another b- [particle.sup.-] and probably forming a certain part of a circle. But on the surface of the positron, there remain the short binding positive structures of the b[particles.sup.-] the positron consists of, which can weakly bind to the long binding negative structures of free bs-[particles.sup.+], but only for a certain time, so that the free bs-[particles.sup.+] leave the positron again moving away from the positron with the velocity of light in all directions. …

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